Muslims in Uttar Pradesh number about 30,740,158 (18.4961%), and form the largest religious minority in the state. They are also known as Urdu speakers, on account of Urdu being their native language, and have also been referred to as Hindustani Musalman.[1] In the strict sense, the Uttar Pradesh Muslims do not form a single ethnic community. They are differentiated by sectarian and caste divisions, as well as by dialect and geographical distribution. Nevertheless, the Uttar Pradesh Muslims possess a sense of group of group identity based on cultural and historic factors. These include the Islamic religion, a Persian cultural tradition and its Indian offspring, the Urdu language.[2] The Muslim population of Uttar Pradesh is unevenly distributed, with a greater number concentrated in western Uttar Pradesh. They are also a disproportionately urban community, reflecting an old historic legacy. Muslims are a not a majority in any district, with Rampur coming close at around 49% . [3]
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Much of Uttar Pradesh formed part of the various Sultanate after 1000 CE and was ruled from their capital, Delhi. As a consequence of these invasions, their arose a community in what is now Uttar Pradesh, which was referred to as Hindustani Musalmans. In medieval times, the term Hindustani Musalman was applied to those Muslims who were either converts to Islam or who had a long settled in India. These Hindustani Musalmans did not form a single community, as they were divided by ethnic, linguistic and economic differences. Often these early settlers lived in fortified towns, known as qasbas. Important qasbas include Kakori in Lucknow District, and Sandhila in Hardoi District. With the rise of the Mongols under Genghis Khan, there was an influx of Muslim refugees into North India, many of whom settled in the provincial qasbas, bringing with them a Persianized culture. Many of these early settlers are the ancestors of the Sayyid and Shaikh communities. In these qasbas, over time a number of cultural norms arose, which still typify many Uttar Pradesh Muslim traditions. [4] The Turkish Sultans of Delhi and their Mughal successors patronized the émigré Muslim culture: Islamic jurists of the Hanafi school, Persian literati who were Athna Ashri Shia and Sufis of several orders, including the Chishti, Qadiri and Naqshbandi. These Sufi orders were particularly important in converting Hindus to Islam.[2]
In western Uttar Pradesh, there was conversion to Islam of a number of agrarian castes such as the Tyagi, Ranghar and Muley Jat. Many of these convert communities kept many of their pre-Islamic customs, such as clan exogamy. According to some scholars, this also led to the creeping into caste system. [5] This region also saw the settlement of Pashtun soldiers and administrors from what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan. The largest settlement was that of Rohilkhand, which was home to a number of Pashtun principalities. Other immmigrants included Kambohs from Punjab, who together with the Pathan formed part of the ruling elite in North India. [6]
Indian converts to Islam ultimately outnumbered the immigrant Muslims, and were also of diverse origin. Many of the converts belonged to the Hindu artisan castes, who were drawn to the new qasbas. Over time, many of these artisan groups evolved into caste like groupings, such as the Momin, who were weavers. Many of these new converts continued to speak their original dialects, such as Awadhi and Khari boli. These groups were sometimes referred to collectively as ajlaf. Groups that claimed actual or putative foreign ancestry were referred to as ashrafs. Over time a fourfold division arose among the Ashraf, with the Sayyids, the actual or claimed descendent of the Prophet Mohammad, the Shaikh, communities signifies Arab descent and comes under high caste of society, however majority are the native Brahmin, Kshatriya and Vaishya clans who used the title of Sheikh after conversion to Islam, the Mughals, descendents of Central Asian Turks and Mongols and the Pathans, descendents of Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan and Afghanistan. [6] Occasionally, important convert communities such as the Kayastha Muslim of eastern Uttar Pradesh, were also granted Ashraf status.
With the collapse of the Sultanate of Delhi, the Mughal established their control, U.P. became the heartland of their vast empire; the region was known as Hindustan, which is used to this day as the name for India in several languages. Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were the capital cities of Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor of India. At their zenith, during the rule of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire covered almost the entire Indian subcontinent (including present day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh), which was ruled at different times from Delhi, Agra and Allahabad.
When the Mughal Empire disintegrated, their territory remained confined to the Doab region of and Delhi. Other areas of Hindustan (U.P.) were now ruled by different rulers: Oudh was ruled by the Nawabs of Oudh, Rohilkhand by the Rohillas, Bundelkhand by the Marathas and Benaras by its own king, while Nepal controlled Kumaon-Garhwal as a part of Greater Nepal. The state's capital city of Lucknow was established by the Muslim Nawabs of Oudh in the 18th century. It became an important centre of Muslim culture, and the centre for the development of Urdu literature. [7][8]
Of all the Muslim states and dependencies of the Mughal empire, Awadh had the newest royal family. They were descended from a Persian adventurer called Sa'adat Khan, originally from Khurasan in Persia. There were many Khurasanis in the service of the Mughals, mostly soldiers, and if successful, they could hope for rich rewards. These Khurasanis were Shia, and Lucknow became a centre of Shia culture in Uttar Pradesh. Burhan ul Mulk Sa'adat Khan proved to be amongst the most successful of this group. In 1732, he was made governor of the province of Awadh. His original title was Nazim, which means Governor, but soon he was made Nawab. In 1740, the Nawab was called Wazir or vizier, which means Chief Minister, and thereafter he was known as the Nawab Wazir. In practice, from Sa'adat Khan onwards, the titles had been hereditary, though in theory they were in the gift of the Mughal emperor, to whom allegiance was paid. A nazar, or token tribute, was sent each year to Delhi, and members of the imperial family were treated with great deference; two of them actually lived in Lucknow after 1819, and were treated with great courtesy. [8]
By the early 19th Century, the British had established their control over what is now Uttar Pradesh. This led to an end of almost eight centuries of Muslim rule over Uttar Pradesh. The British rulers created a class of feudal landowners who were generally referred to as zamindars, and in Awadh as taluqdars. Many of these large landowners provided patronage to the arts, and funded many of the early Muslim educational institutions. A major educational institution was the Aligarh Muslim University, which gave its name to the Aligarh movement. Under the guidance of Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, the Urdu speaking Muslim elite sought to retain their position of political and administrative importance by reconciling their Mughal and Islamic culture with English education. A somewhat different educational movement was led by the Ulema of Deoband, who founded a religious school or Dar-ul-Uloom designed to revitalize Islamic learning. The aim of the Deobandis, as the movement became known as was to purge the Muslims of all strata of traditions and customs that were claimed to be Hindu. Most of the early proselytization was concentrated in the Doab region where Deoband is located, which was home to a number of peasant castes, such as the Rajput Muslim, Gujjar, Tyagi and Jat, who had maintained a number of pre-Islamic customs. A reaction to the growth of the Deobandi movement was the rise of the Barelvi sub-sect, which was much more tolerant of the customs and traditions of the local population.[2]
The role of Urdu language played an important role in the development of Muslim self-consciousness in the early twentieth century. Uttar Pradesh Muslims set up anjumans or associations for the protection and promotion of Urdu. These early Muslim associations formed the nucleus of the All India Muslim League in Dhaka in 1905. Many of the leaders belonged to the Ashraf category. Uttar Pradesh Muslims formed the core of the movement for a separate Muslim state, later known as Pakistan. The eventual effect of this movement led to the partition of India, and creation of Pakistan. This led to an exodus of many Muslim professionals to Pakistan, and the division of the Uttar Pradeshi Muslims, with the formation of the Muhajir ethnic group of Pakistan. The role of the Aligarh Muslim University was extremely important in the creation of Pakistan. [9]
The net result of partition and independence in 1947, was the division of the Urdu speaking Uttar Pradesh Muslims. It also led to major social, political and cultural changes, for example Urdu lost its status. The abolishment of the zamindari system also had a profound impact, as these large landowners provided patronage to local artisans. This was especially true of the Awadh region. But Muslim artisan communities have held their own, with the growth of specialized industries such as lock manufacturing in Aligarh. The Muslim peasantry in western Uttar Pradesh benefited from the Green Revolution, while those in eastern Uttar Pradesh did poorly. Another important event was the demise of the Muslim League, with most Muslims initially supporting the Indian National Congress.[10] The post partition period also saw a reduction in communal violence between Hindus and Muslims. This was also a period where Muslim leadership was still in the hands of Ashraf leaders such as Abdul Majeed Khwaja in Aligarh and Rafi Ahmed Kidwai in Barabanki. However, from the late 1960s onwards, there has been an increase in the number of communal riots, culminating in the destruction of the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya in December 1992. This period has also seen the decline of Muslim support for the Congress Party.[11]
The last three decades have seen two issues confronting the Muslim community, often referred to as Mandir and Mandal. Mandir refers to the building of a Hindu temple in the town of Ayodhya in eastern Uttar Pradesh, on the site of a mosque. This cause has been championed by the Bharatiya Janata Party, and as a consequence, there has been an increase in communal violence.[11] The other issue is commonly referred to as Mandal, a reference to the Mandal Commission, which was set up to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. Among the groups identified for reservation included a number of ajlaf communities. This has led to greater assertion of ajlaf political power, and a decline in the ashraf leadership. A major controversy is a demand for the Muslim community to receive reservation as a whole, which is being opposed by many ajlaf communities. There are also demands to extend the scheduled caste status, which the Indian Constitution restricts to Hindu castes only, to Muslim arzal groups like the Halalkhor and Lal Begi.[12]
Famous Muslims from Uttar Pradesh include the poet Javed Akhtar, Vice President of India Hamid Ansari, historian Irfan Habib, politician Salman Khursheed and cricketer Mohammad Kaif.
Studies including the now famous Sachar Report have identified that the Muslim community in Uttar Pradesh lags behind in terms of economics, educational attainment and political representation. The general political consensus in India has been for a number of historic reasons, that the Muslim community as whole should not be subject to any affirmative action policies, such as other socially deprived groupings, for example the Scheduled Castes. However, the state has conceded that certain biradaris within the larger Muslim community of UP do deserve reservations in jobs and quotas in educational institutions. This principle has been established by the Mandal Commission. [13]
Many of these biradaris that have been traditionally associated with a particular craft have been granted Other Backward Class status, which in theory makes them eligible for a number of affirmitave action schemes.[14]There has been some criticism as the selection of criteria, which many disadvantaged Muslim biradaris excluded from the lists drawn up by the Government of India. For example, certain biradaris whose Hindu counterparts were lists as Scheduled Castes were omitted from the first Uttar Pradeh list. This was part dealt with by including Muslim Nats, Muslim Mochis and Muslim Dhobis, whose Hindu counterparts have Scheduled Caste status as backward communities. [15] However, a number of extremely marginalized Muslim communities such as the Muslim Dabgar. Muslim Bandhmatis and Muslim Bansphor remain excluded despite the fact that there Hindu counterparts are on the Scheduled Caste list. Other economically deprived groups such as the Kankali, Kanmailia and Kingharia have also been excluded, while groups such the Kayastha Muslims and Muslim Kamboh have been included. All in all, approximately 44 communities have been included in the Uttar Pradesh OBC list. [16]
The Government of India has recently made an announcement of the establishment of a sub-quota of 4.5% for minorities within the existing 27% reservation meant for the Other Backward Classes. This decision has been said to be made as it is alleged that those Muslim communities that have been granted OBC status are unable to compete with wealthier section of the Hindu OBC community.[17]
Sufis (Islamic mystics) played an important role in the spread of Islam in India. They were very successful in spreading Islam, as many aspects of Sufi belief systems and practices had their parallels in Indian philosophical literature, in particular nonviolence and monism. The Sufis' orthodox approach towards Islam made it easier for Hindus to practice. Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din Chishti, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki, Nizam-ud-din Auliya, Shah Jalal, Amir Khusro, Sarkar Sabir Pak, Shekh Alla-ul-Haq Pandwi, Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, Sarkar Waris Pak, Ata Hussain Fani Chishti trained Sufis for the propagation of Islam in different parts of India. Once the Islamic Empire was established in India, Sufis invariably provided a touch of colour and beauty to what might have otherwise been rather cold and stark reigns. The Sufi movement also attracted followers from the artisan and untouchable communities; they played a crucial role in bridging the distance between Islam and the indigenous traditions. Ahmad Sirhindi, a prominent member of the Naqshbandi Sufi advocated the peaceful conversion of Hindus to Islam. Imam Ahmed Rida Khan contributed a lot by defending traditional and orthodox Islam in India by his famous work Fatawa Razvia.
Some South Asian Muslims have been known to stratify their society according to quoms.[18] These Muslims practise a ritual-based system of social stratification. The Quoms who deal with human emissions are ranked the lowest. These quams are further divided into biradaris, which claim descent from an actual or putative common male ancestor. For example, an individual will belong to the Shaikh quom and Behlim or Fareedi biradari. [19]
It is commonly believed that Muslims in Uttar Pradesh are divided into the ashraf and ajlaf categories which are distinguished by ethnic origin and descent. However, a number of students making empirical studies of Muslim communities in different parts of India have found that this distinction is not really meaningful in understanding the existing pattern among the diverse social groups in any locality. It may be asked, therefore, if the 'ashraf' and 'ajlaf' categories constitute meaningful units of distinction for the study of social stratification among Indian Muslims. Technically, the ashraf are descendents of groups with foreign ancestry, while the ajlaf are those whose ancestors are said to have converted to Islam. The Ashraaf are further divided into four groupings, the Sayyid, the supposed descendants of the Prophet Mohammed, the Shaikh claiming descents from early Arab or Iranian settlers, the Mughal who claim descent from the Mughal Dynasty and finally the Pathan, who claim descents from Pashtun groups that have settled in India. Technically the first two groups intermarry with each other, while the latter two intermarry. Included sometimes in the ashraf category are Muslim Rajput groups such as the Ranghar and Khanzada. A third category, arzaal are supposed to be converts from Hindu Dalit communities. However, the term arzaal is never used in Uttar Pradesh. Groups that tend to fall in this category include the Halalkhor and Lal Begi.[20] The reality is more complicated, with UP Muslims identifying themselves in smaller units called biradaris, which are localized lineage groupings. For example the Qidwai Shaikh are one such localized lineage group, concentrated in Barabanki District.[21]
Those communities falling within the ajlaf category were traditionally associated with the practice of a particular craft, for example the Ansari were weavers, while the Saifi were blacksmiths. These artisan communities also call themselves biradaries or brotherhoods in English, and each biradari is characterised by strict endogamy. In the older parts of town and cities in Uttar Pradesh, they are also characterised by residential segration. .[22] Among other traditional artisan biradaris in UP are the Behna, Bhatiara, Bhishti, Manihar, Dhobi, Muslim Halwai, Teli and Raj, which were at one time associated with a particular craft or trade. [23]
In addition to occupational specialization, both biradaris are also concentrated in a particular geographic area. For example, the Doab region to home to number of biradaris of peasant cultivators, such as the Baloch, Dogar, Garha, Gujjar, Jat, Jhojha, Kamboh, Rajput and Muslim Tyagi, often living in their own villages, and following distinct customs. Almost all these groups are Sunni, and speak Khari boli. While the region of Awadh is home to both large communities of Ansaris, Khanzadas and Shaikh, some of whom are Shia, and most speak Awadhi.[24]
The population is also further divided by linguistic divisions, most UP Muslims speak Urdu, but in addition tend also to speak a local dialect. Most biradaries in western Uttar Pradesh speak Khari boli, while those in Awadh speak Awadhi.
Here is brief description of the main communities. [25][26]
| Community | Sect | Description | Distribution | Granted Other Backward Classes Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abbasi | Sunni | a Shaikh biradari, mainly urban | found mainly in Bulandshahr District, Farrukhabad District, Etawah District, Bareilly District, Moradabad District, Allahabad District, Kanpur District, Jaunpur District, Ballia District and Basti District | Bhishtis have status, while the Shaikh are not included |
| Ahbans Khanzada | some Sunni, some Shia | a community landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Lakhimpur Kheri District and Hardoi District | No, as they are of Rajput origin |
| Alavi | largely Shia, some Sunni | a Shaikh biradari | found in Muzaffarnagar District, Allahabad District, Azamgarh District, Basti District and Lucknow District | No |
| Ansari Shaikh | Sunni | a Shaikh biradari, mainly urban | Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District, Meerut District, Bulandshahr District, Aligarh District, Agra District, Rohilkhand and Awadh | No |
| Ansari Momin | Sunni | a community of weavers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Atishbaz | Sunni | a community of fireworks manufacturers | found mainly in Awadh and Varanasi District | Yes |
| Bachgoti Khanzada | Sunni, except the taluqdar families | a community of landowners and cultivators | mainly in Sultanpur District and Faizabad District | No, as they are of Rajput origin |
| Baghban | Sunni | mainly cultivators | Lakhimpur Kheri District and Sitapur District | Yes |
| Bais | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Shahjahanpur District, Fatehpur District, Banda District, Jaunpur District, Ghazipur District, Gorakhpur District, Basti District, Azamgarh District, Raebareli District, Sitapur District, Bahraich District, Faizabad District, Sultanpur District, Pratapgarh District and Barabanki District | No |
| Baluch | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District, Meerut District, Bulandshahr District, Aligarh District and Mathura District | No |
| Banjara | Sunni | traditionally a community of carriers, but now mainly landowners and cultivators. | found mainly in the Doab and Rohilkhand. Also found in the districts of Unnao, Sitapur and Kheri districts of Awadh | Yes |
| Bandmati | Sunni | traditionally ropemakers | found mainly in Saharanpur District | No |
| Bannu Israil | Sunni | a Shaikh biradari, mainly urban | mainly in the Doab and Rohilkhand | No |
| Bansphor | Sunni | traditionally involved in the manufacture of bamboo furtniture | found mainly in the Doab and Rohilkhand (Bijnor and Moradabad districts) | No |
| Barhai | Sunni | traditionally carpenters | found in the Doab and Rohilkhand | Yes |
| Behlim | Sunni | Shaikh biradari, mainly urban | found mainly in the Doab, with scattered communities in Gonda and Bahraich | No |
| Behna, also known as Dhuna and Mansoori | Sunni | traditionally cotton carders | found in Awadh, Rohilkhand and Purvanchal | Yes |
| Bhale Sultan Khanzada | mainly Shia, some Sunni | mainly landowners and cultivators | found in Bulandshahr District, Raebareli District, Faizabad District, Sultanpur District, Barabanki District, Gonda District, Bahraich District, Gonda District and Lakhimpur Kheri District | No |
| Bharbhunja | Sunni | traditionally grain parchers | found mainly in the Doab, Rohilkhand and the districts of Sitapur, Bahraich, and Barabanki in Awadh | Yes |
| Bharsaiyan | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Raebareli District | No |
| Bhatiara | Sunni | traditionally innkeepers, now many are cultivators and petty traders | found throughout Uttar Pradesh, with concentrations in Aligarh, Badaun, Moradabad and Allahabad district | Yes |
| Bhatti Khanzada | Sunni, except the taluqdar families who are Shia | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in the Doab, Rohilkhand and Barabanki, Pratapgarh and Bahraich districts of Awadh | No |
| Bhishti , also known as Saqqa Abbasi | Sunni | traditionally water carriers, now mainly traders | found in Awadh, Rohilkhand and Awadh | Yes |
| Bhumihar | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Ghazipur District | No |
| Bisati | Sunni | traditionally pedlars and traders | found mainly in the Doab and Rohilkhand | No |
| Bisen Khanzada | some Shia, some Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Basti District, Gorakhpur District, Azamgarh District, Raebareli District, Sitapur District, Faizabad District, Sultanpur District, Barabanki District, and Bahraich District | No |
| Chandel Khanzada | some Shia, some Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Awadh | No |
| Chhipi | Sunni | traditionally dyers and cloth printers | found in Rohilkhand and Doab | Yes |
| Chikwa | Sunni | traditionally mutton butchers | found in Rohilkhand and Awadh | Yes |
| Churihar | Sunni | traditionally bangle makers | found in Mathura District, Agra District, Lalitpur District and Jhansi District | Yes |
| Dabgar | Sunni | traditionally manufacturers of rawhide jars | Meerut District, Etawah District, and Jhansi District | No |
| Dafali | Sunni | traditionally agricultural workers | throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Darzi | Sunni | traditionally tailors | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Dhagi | traditionally weavers | Sunni | found in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District and Meerut District | Yesa, but only on state list |
| Dharhi | Shia | traditionally musicians | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No |
| Dhobi, also known as Hawari | Sunni | traditionally washer men | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Dikhit Khanzada | Sunni | cultivators and landowners | found mainly in Banda District, Ghazipur District and Fatehpur District | No |
| Dogar | Sunni | cultivators and landowners | Muzaffarnagar District, Ghaziabad District, and Bulandshahr District | No |
| Fareedi | Sunni | a Shaikh biradari | found in Fatehpur District, Kanpur District, Badaun District, Moradabad District, Shahjahanpur District and Lakhimpur Kheri District | No |
| Faqir | Sunni | traditionally ascetics, but also cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Gaddi | Sunni | cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Garha | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District and Meerut District | Yes |
| Gautam Khanzada | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Fatehpur District, Ghazipur District, Azamgarh District, Banda District, Sitapur District, Gonda District, Lakhimpur Kheri District, Gonda District and Sultanpur District | No |
| Ghosi | Sunni | traditionally dairymen and cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Goriya | Sunni | cultivators | found Basti District and Sidharthnagar District | No |
| Gujjar | Sunni, except a few in Barabanki District who are Shis | cultivators | found in the Doab, Awadh and Bijnor District | Yes |
| Hajjam, more commonly known as Salmani | Sunni | traditionally barbers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Halwai | Sunni | traditionally barbers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Halalkhor | Sunni | traditionally sweepers and agricultural labourers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Iraqi | Sunni | traditionally petty traders | found in Awadh, Allahabad District, Ghazipur District, Azamgarh District, Basti District, Ballia District, Jaunpur District, Kanpur District and Mirzapur District | Yes, listed as Muslim Kalal |
| Ja'fri | Sunni | a Shaikh biradari | mainly in Awadh | No |
| Jaga | Shia | musicians and genealogists | Awadh and Rohilkhand | No |
| Jat | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District, Meerut District, Baghpat District and Ghaziabad District | No, application refused in 1995 |
| Jhojha | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District and Bijnor District | Yes |
| Jogi Faqir | Sunni | traditionally ascetics, many are cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Johiya Khanzada | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Allahabad District | No |
| Kabaria | Sunni | cultivators | found in Lucknow District, Barabanki District and Bahraich District | Yes, as part of the larger Kunjra community |
| Kamangar | Sunni | traditionally manufactured bows | found in Doab and Rohilkhand | No |
| Kamboh | largely Sunni, some Shia | landowners and cultivators | found in the Doab and Rohilkhand, especially in Etah District | Yes |
| Kankali | Sunni | traditionally musicians | found in northern Awadh and Gorakhpur | No |
| Kanmailia | Sunni | traditionally labourers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No |
| Kasgar | Sunni | traditionally potters | found in Awadh | Yes |
| Kayastha | Sunni | traditionally scribes and accountants, as well as landowners | found in Allahabad District and Pratapgarh District | Yes |
| Khanzada | landowners and cultivators | found throughout eastern Uttar Pradesh | No | |
| Khokhar Khanzada | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Moradabad District and Fatehpur District | No |
| Khumra | Sunni | were once millstone manufacturers | found in the Doab and Rohilkhand | Yes |
| Kingharia | Shia | traditionally were singers and entertainers | found in Mirzapur District, Banda District and Ghazipur District | No |
| Kumhar | Sunni | traditionally potters | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Kunjra | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Lal Begi, also known as Hasnati | Shia | traditionally sweepers and agricultural workers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Lalkhani | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Aligarh District and Bulandshahr District | No |
| Madari | Sunni | traditionally ascetics | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Malkana | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Agra District, Mathura District, Etah District and Mainpuri District | No |
| Mandarkia | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Sultanpur District | No |
| Manihar | Sunni | traditionally bangle makers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Meo | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in the Doab and Rohilkhand | Yes |
| Milki | largely Sunni, some Shia | Shaikh biradari | mainly in Awadh, Allahabad District, Azamgarh District, Gorakhpur District and Basti District | No |
| Mirasi | Shia | traditionally singers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Mochi Musalmaan | Sunni | cobblers and shoemakers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Mughal | largely Shia, some Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No |
| Mujavir | Sunni | custodians of the shrine of Syed Salar Masud | found in Bahraich District | No |
| Muker | Sunni | traditionally carriers, now mainly cultivators | found in Shahjahanpur District, Lakhimpur Kheri District, Bahraich District and Balrampur District | Yes |
| Nagar Muslims | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Bulandshahr District | No |
| Nalband | Sunni | traditionally horseshoe manufacturers | found in the Doab | Yes |
| Nanbai | Sunni | traditionally bakers | found in Awadh, Shahjahanpur District and Fatehpur District | Yes, but only on the state list |
| Naqqal | Sunni | traditionally mimes and entertainers | found mainly in Awadh | Yes, but only on the state list |
| Nat | Sunni | traditionally acrobats and entertainers | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Panchpiria | Sunni | found in Awadh | No | |
| Pankhiya | Sunni | cultivators | found in Shahjahanpur District, Hardoi District, Kanpur District, Allahabad District, Basti District and Azamgarh District | No |
| Pathans | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | throughout Uttar Pradesh | No |
| Putliwale | Sunni | traditionally pupeteers | in Awadh | No |
| Qalandar | Sunni | traditionally ascetics | found in the Doab, Rohilkhand and Allahabad District | No |
| Qassab, also known as Qureshi | Sunni | traditionally butchers and hides merchants | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Qaum Punjaban, also known as Shamsi Biradari | Sunni | traditionally merchants | found in Aligarh District, Agra District, Moradabad District, and Kanpur District | No |
| Qidwai | some Shia, some Sunni | Shaikh biradari | found mainly in Barabanki District | No |
| Qureshi | Sunni | Shaikh biradari | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | those belonging to the Qassab community included |
| Raibhat | Sunni, some Shia in Awadh | traditionally genealogist | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No |
| Raj | Sunni | traditionally masons | found in the Doab, Rohilkhand and Awadh | Yes, |
| Ramaiya | Sunni | traditionally traders and peddlers | found in Muzaffarnagar District and Bijnor District | No |
| Ranghar, also known as Rajput Muslims | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in the Doab and Rohilkhand, with especial concentrations in Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar and Meerut | No |
| Rangrez | Sunni | traditionally dyers | throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Rayeen | Sunni | traditionally landowners and cultivators | found in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District, Rampur District, Bareilly District and Pilibhit District | Yes |
| Rohella | Sunni, a few Shia in Rampur District | a community of landowners and cultivators | found in Rohilkhand | No |
| Sadaat Amroha | largely Shia, some Sunni | mainly an urban community | found in Jyotiba Phule Nagar District | No |
| Sadaat-e-Bilgram | Shia | landowners and cultivators | found in Hardoi District and Fatehpur District | No |
| Sai | Sunni | a caste of ascetics | found in Saharanpur District, Bijnor District, Lakhimpur Kheri District, Sitapur District, Bahraich District and Bahraich District | Yes, but only on state list |
| Saiqalgar | Sunni | traditionally metal polishers, now mainly petty traders | found mainly in Awadh, also found in Saharanpur District and Aligarh District | No |
| Saifi | Sunni | traditionally ironsmiths | mainly in the Doab and Rohilkhand | Yes |
| Sayyid | largely Shia, some Sunni | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No | |
| Shaikh | mainly Sunni, some Shia among the Qidwai and Milki | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | No | |
| Shaikhzada | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Muzaffarnagar District and Saharanpur District | NoSheikh Sarvari |
| Sheikh Sarvari | Sunni | Faqir sub-group | found in western Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Sherwani | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found throughout in Bulandshahr District, Moradabad District and Aligarh District | No |
| Sikarwar Khanzada | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found in Ghazipur District, Azamgarh District, Gorakhpur District, Basti District, Faizabad District and Sultanpur District | No |
| Teli, also known as Malik | Sunni | traditionally oil pressers, most of the Teli of the Doab and Rohilkhand are cultivators | found throughout Uttar Pradesh | Yes |
| Turk | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Rampur District and Bareilly District | No |
| Tyagi | Sunni | landowners and cultivators | found mainly in Saharanpur District, Muzaffarnagar District, Bagpat District, Meerut District, Bijnor District and Moradabad District | No |
| Zamindara | Sunni | a community of landowners and cultivators | mainly in Azamgarh District | No |
Here is a breakdown of the Muslim poulation by district according to the 2001 Census of India.[27]
| Number | District | Headquarters | Population (2001) | Muslim population (2001) | Percentage | |
| 1 | Rampur | Rampur | 1,923,739 | 945,277 | 49% | |
| 2 | Moradabad | Moradabad | 3,810,983 | 1,735,381 | 46% | |
| 3 | Bijnor | Bijnor | 3,131,619 | 1,306,329 | 42% | |
| 4 | Jyotiba Phule Nagar | Amroha | 1,499,068 | 590,308 | 39% | |
| 5 | Saharanpur | Saharanpur | 2,896,863 | 1,132,919 | 39% | |
| 6 | Muzaffarnagar | Muzaffarnagar | 3,543,362 | 1,349,629 | 38% | |
| 7 | Balrampur | Balrampur | 1,682,350 | 617,675 | 37% | |
| 8 | Bahraich | Bahraich| | 2,381,072 | 829,361 | 35% | |
| 9 | Bareilly | Bareilly | 3,618,589 | 1,226,386 | 34% | |
| 10 | Meerut | Meerut | 2,997,361 | 975,715 | 33% | |
| 11 | Siddharthnagar | Navgarh | 2,040,085 | 600,336 | 29% | |
| 12 | Shravasti | Bhinga | 1,176,391 | 301,117 | 26% | |
| 13 | Bagpat | Bagpat | 1,163,991 | 287,871 | 25% | |
| 14 | Ghaziabad | Ghaziabad | 3,290,586 | 782,915 | 24% | |
| 15 | Pilibhit | Pilibhit | 1,645,183 | 390,773 | 24% | |
| 16 | Sant Kabir Nagar | Khalilabad | 1,420,226 | 341,154 | 24% | |
| 17 | Barabanki | Barabanki | 2,673,581 | 589,197 | 22% | |
| 18 | Badaun | Badaun | 3,069,426 | 654,797 | 21% | |
| 19 | Bulandshahr | Bulandshahr | 2,913,122 | 613,660 | 21% | |
| 20 | Lucknow | Lucknow | 3,647,834 | 748,687 | 21% | |
| 21 | Gonda | Gonda | 2,765,586 | 532,585 | 19% | |
| 22 | Lakhimpur Kheri | Kheri | 3,207,232 | 612,638 | 19% | |
| 23 | Mau | Mau | 1,853,997 | 353,003 | 19% | |
| 24 | Sitapur | Sitapur | 3,619,661 | 696,126 | 19% | |
| 25 | Aligarh | Aligarh | 2,992,286 | 531,956 | 18% | |
| 26 | Shahjahanpur | Shahjahanpur | 2,547,855 | 455,049 | 18% | |
| 27 | Kushinagar | Padarauna | 2,893,196 | 487,674 | 17% | |
| 28 | Maharajganj | Maharajganj | 2,173,878 | 357,822 | 17% | |
| 29 | Ambedkar Nagar | Akbarpur | 2,026,876 | 332,212 | 16% | |
| 30 | Firozabad | Firozabad | 2,052,958 | 260,414 | 16% | |
| 31 | Kannauj | Kannauj | 1,388,923 | 219,104 | 16% | |
| 32 | Kanpur Nagar | Kanpur | 4,167,999 | 653,881 | 16% | |
| 33 | Sultanpur | Sultanpur | 3,214,832 | 524,642 | 16% | |
| 34 | Varanasi | Varanasi | 3,138,671 | 497,516 | 16% | |
| 35 | Azamgarh | Azamgarh | 3,939,916 | 593,907 | 15% | |
| 36 | Basti | Basti | 2,084,814 | 306,540 | 15% | |
| 37 | Farrukhabad | Fatehgarh | 1,570,408 | 232,599 | 15% | |
| 38 | Faizabad | Faizabad | 2,088,928 | 304,434 | 15% | |
| 39 | Kaushambi | Manjhanpur | 1,293,154 | 174,698 | 14% | |
| 40 | Pratapgarh | Pratapgarh | 2,731,174 | 374,126 | 14% | |
| 41 | Allahabad | Allahabad | 4,936,105 | 627,735 | 13% | |
| 42 | Fatehpur | Fatehpur | 2,308,384 | 307,047 | 13% | |
| 43 | Gautam Buddha Nagar | Noida | 1,202,030 | 156,415 | 13% | |
| 44 | Hardoi | Hardoi | 3,398,306 | 445,419 | 13% | |
| 45 | Deoria | Deoria | 2,712,650 | 308,731 | 12% | |
| 46 | Rae Bareli | Rae Bareli | 2,872,335 | 340,129 | 12% | |
| 47 | Sant Ravidas Nagar | Gyanpur | 1,353,705 | 161,962 | 12% | |
| 48 | Unnao | Unnao | 2,700,324 | 296,780 | 11% | |
| 49 | Etah | Etah | 2,790,410 | 319,386 | 11% | |
| 50 | Chandauli | Chandauli | 1,643,251 | 168,281 | 10% | |
| 51 | Ghazipur | Ghazipur | 3,037,582 | 300,327 | 10% | |
| 52 | Jalaun | Orai | 1,454,452 | 146,317 | 10% | |
| 53 | Jaunpur | Jaunpur | 3,911,679 | 399,186 | 10% | |
| 54 | Mahamaya Nagar | Hathras | 1,336,031 | 134,851 | 10% | |
| 55 | Agra | Agra | 3,620,436 | 323,634 | 9% | |
| 56 | Gorkakhpur | Gorakhpur | 3,769,456 | 344,960 | 9% | |
| 57 | Kanpur Dehat | Akbarpur | 1,563,336 | 145,525 | 9% | |
| 58 | Banda | Banda | 1,537,334 | 126,203 | 8% | |
| 59 | Hamirpur | Hamirpur | 1,043,724 | 83,064 | 8% | |
| 60 | Mathura | Mathura | 2,074,516 | 167,628 | 8% | |
| 61 | Mirzapur | Mirzapur | 2,116,042 | 158,204 | 8% | |
| 62 | Auraiya | Auraiya| | 1,179,993 | 83,719 | 7% | |
| 63 | Ballia | Ballia | 2,761,620 | 181,553 | 7% | |
| 64 | Etawah | Etawah | 1,338,871 | 95,926 | 7% | |
| 65 | Jhansi | Jhansi | 1,744,931 | 129,785 | 7% | |
| 66 | Mahoba | Mahoba | 708,447 | 47,335 | 7% | |
| 67 | Mainpuri | Mainpuri | 1,596,718 | 84,577 | 5% | |
| 68 | Sonbhadra | Robertsganj | 1,463,519 | 79,102 | 5% | |
| 69 | Chitrakoot | Chitrakoot | 766,225 | 27,168 | 4% | |
| 70 | Lalitpur | Lalitpur | 977,734 | 28,796 | 3% |
What unite the various Muslim communities in Uttar Pradesh is the use of the Urdu language. Urdu has much in common with the Hindustani, as is thus mutually intelligible with Standard Hindi. The grammatical description in this article concerns this standard Urdu. The original language of the Mughals was Chagatai, a Turkic language, but after their arrival in South Asia, they came to adopt Persian. Gradually, the need to communicate with local inhabitants led to a composition of Sanskrit-derived languages, written in the Perso-Arabic script and with literary conventions and specialized vocabulary being retained from Persian, Arabic and Turkic; the new standard was eventually given its own name of Urdu.[28]
Urdu is often contrasted with Hindi, another standardised form of Hindustani. The main differences between the two are that Standard Urdu is conventionally written in Nastaliq calligraphy style of the Perso-Arabic script and draws vocabulary from Persian, Arabic, Turkish and local languages[29] while Standard Hindi is conventionally written in Devanāgarī and draws vocabulary from Sanskrit comparatively[30] more heavily. Most linguists nonetheless consider Urdu and Hindi to be two standardized forms of the same language;[31][32] others classify them separately,[33] while some consider any differences to be sociolinguistic.[34] It should be noted, however, that mutual intelligibility decreases in literary and specialized contexts. Furthermore, due to religious nationalism since the partition of British India and consequent continued communal tensions, native speakers of both Hindi and Urdu increasingly assert them to be completely distinct languages.
Later on, during the Mughal Empire, the development of Urdu was further strengthened and started to emerge as a new language.[35] The official language of the Ghurids, Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and their successor states, as well as the cultured language of poetry and literature, was Persian, while the language of religion was Arabic. Most of the Sultans and nobility in the Sultanate period were Turks from Central Asia who spoke Turkic as their mother tongue. The Mughals were also from Central Asia, they spoke Turkish as their first language; however the Mughals later adopted Persian. Persian became the preferred language of the Muslim elite of north India before the Mughals entered the scene. Babur's mother tongue was a Turkic language and he wrote exclusively in Turkish. His son and successor Humayun also spoke and wrote in this Turkic language. Muzaffar Alam, a noted scholar of Mughal and Indo-Persian history, asserts that Persian became the lingua franca of the empire under Akbar for various political and social factors due to its non-sectarian and fluid nature.[36]
Urdu's vocabulary remains heavily influenced by the Persian language.[37] Since the 1800s, English started to replace Persian as the official language in India and it also contributed to influence the Urdu language. As of today, Urdu's vocabulary is strongly influenced by the English language.
The Uttar Pradesh Muslims clung to their old established habits and tastes, including a numberless variety of dishes and beverages. The Mughal and Indo-Iranian heritage played an influential role in the making of their cuisine, having taste vary from mild to spicy and is often associated with aroma. There cuisine tends to use stronger spices and flavors. Most of a dastarkhawan dining table include chapatti, rice, dal, vegetable and meat curry. Special dishes include biryani, qorma, kofta, seekh kabab, Nihari and Haleem, Nargisi Koftay, Kata-Kat, Rogani Naan, Naan, sheer-qurma (sweet), qourma, chai (sweet, milky tea), paan, and other delicacies associated with North Indian Muslim culture.